Through the Eyes of Travellers

Al-Biruni and Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Biruni was a scholar from Khwarizm who wrote Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic, analyzing Indian sciences, religion, and the rigid caste system using Sanskrit texts.

Ibn Battuta and Rihla

A Moroccan traveler who visited India during the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, documenting the bustling trade routes, postal system, and coconut/pan culture in his book Rihla.

Francois Bernier and State Ownership

A French physician who spent years at the Mughal court and argued in his writings that the lack of private property in land was the root cause of the decay of the Mughal empire.

Sati System and Enslaved Labor

Foreign travelers documented social practices like the Sati system, where widows self-immolated, and the widespread presence of slavery, noting how these practices shocked or fascinated outside observers.

Urban Centers and Trade

Travelers described vibrant Indian cities and towns that derived their wealth not just from royal courts, but also from thriving craft production, international trade, and diverse markets.